A New Look At An Old Problem: The Date Of The Exodus
Evangelicals don’t always agree on everything, and the date of the exodus is a case in point.
Many dates have been proposed, but many people would affirm (with, for example, W. Fields,
Exploring Exodus [College Press, 1976]; W. Smith, Old Testament History, revised edition [College Press, 1979]), that the exodus occurred about 1445 B.C. They do so primarily—though not exclusively—on the basis of 1 Kings 6:1, which states that 480 years elapsed between the release of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery and the laying of the foundations of Solomon’s temple.
Others would just as strongly insist that it took place around 1290 B.C. (with, for example, Eerdmans’s Concise Bible Handbook [World Wide Publications, 1980]; J. Bright, A History of Israel, third edition [Westminster, 1981]; J. P. Hyatt, Exodus [Eerdmans, 1980]; J. K. West, Introduction to the Old Testament, second edition [Macmillan, 1981]). They do so primarily—though again not exclusively—because of Exodus 1:11, which says the Israelite laborers built a store city called Rameses, which was named after the famous Egyptian pharaoh Rameses II.
Still others are uncertain on the issue (with, for example, G. W. Ramsey, The Quest for the Historical Israel [John Knox, 1981]; M. Woudstra, The Book of Joshua [Eerdmans, 1981]), tilting now toward 1445, now toward 1290. They have found it difficult to commit themselves absolutely to one date or the other because of the complexity of the evidence as well as the powerful arguments and ingenious explanations marshaled by both sides. The 1290 touters, for example, keep faith (so they say) with 1 Kings 6:1 by interpreting the 480 years as 12 generations—not of 40 years each (a more realistic figure). And the 1445 proponents handle (as it were) the Rameses reference either by finding the name Rameses used of lesser personages in Egyptian documents of the fifteenth century b.c. or by declaring Exodus 1:11 a later editorial updating (not a bad idea, incidentally, since Genesis 47:11—which also refers to Rameses—is surely to be so understood).
For many years I was a contented advocate of a 1290 exodus, because the archaeological evidence for the Israelite conquest of Canaan seemed to be consistently in favor of the later rather than the earlier date. Recently, however, three evaluations of the available data (some old, some new) have caused me to change my mind.
1. David Noel Freedman, a prominent Near Eastern studies specialist, has proposed that Abraham lived much longer ago than is assumed by those who hold to the late date for the exodus. Freedman’s suggestion is based on the Ebla tablets as well as on recent excavations near the southeast end of the Dead Sea. The new evidence implies that Sodom and Gomorrah existed in the third millennium B.C. and were destroyed near the end of it. Since Exodus 12:40 implicitly ties the exodus date in with the dates of the patriarchs, pushing Abraham’s life and times back in history means that the exodus must be placed earlier as well.
2. Hans Goedicke, an eminent Egyptologist, suggests a date of 1447 B.C. for the exodus on the basis of novel interpretations of the Great Speos Artemidos inscription from Middle Egypt and of the effects of the volcanic eruption that destroyed the Mediterranean island of Santorini early in the fifteenth century B.C. (see CT, June 12, 1981, p. 42). The inscription and the eruption combine to provide evidence of an enormous tidal wave that may have been the secondary means used by God to divide the waters of the Red Sea as well as to drown the Egyptians who were in pursuit.
3. John J. Bimson has produced a new attempt to reconcile the biblical and archaeological evidence in an important volume entitled Redating the Exodus and Conquest (Sheffield, England: Almond Press, second edition 1981 [first edition 1978]). What makes Bimson’s treatment so compelling is that he treats every Old Testament passage in any way related to the subject at hand as well as every conceivable archaeological report or synthesis bearing on the exodus and conquest narratives. In a brilliant excursus on the dating of bichrome ware—the single most important type of pottery for dating the transition between the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) and Late Bronze Age (LBA)—he demonstrates that the LBA started much later than formerly thought. This in turn means that the MBAended (midfifteenth century B.C.) much later than was formerly believed possible. Bimson then interprets the archaeologically verified destruction of numerous MBA cities in Palestine as the result not of Hyksos invasion (as many scholars conjecture) but of the Israelite conquest of Canaan under Joshua beginning about 1430 B.C.—which of course means that the exodus occurred about 1470 B.C.
All of the above proposals are controversial to a greater or lesser degree, but the three scholars have one thing in common: their findings all imply that the exodus took place at least 25 years earlier than even the early-date theorists allow. Bimson, who deals with this problem head-on, says that the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 is indeed a round number—but for a figure slightly larger than 480 (rather than smaller, as the late-date theorists propose), hence is critical of the 1445 date. But he is even more critical of the 1290 date, insisting that its advocates can produce scarcely a single biblical site that was destroyed by burning in the Late Bronze Age.
When all is said and done, however, must evangelicals seek a consensus on this matter?
Frank Gaebelein several years ago said to me, “I don’t think that one’s opinion concerning the dating of the exodus should determine his theological orthodoxy.” True enough; but it is always interesting to see which way the evidence tilts us on controversial matters such as these.
Reviewed by Ronald Youngblood, professor of Old Testament and Hebrew at Bethel Theological Seminary, West Campus, San Diego, California.
Chained References Unchained
The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible Survey, by Howard A. Hanke (Word, 1981, 574 pp., $17.95), is reviewed by William H. Baker, associate professor, Moody Bible Institute, Chicago.
The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible Survey is offered as a supplementary volume to the well-known Thompson Chain-Reference Bible (TCRB), which was first published in 1908.
The most notable feature of this companion Bible survey is the format of marginal entries, similar to the TCRB, which uses the same numbers and captions to tie in many of the topics suggested by the various discussions and Bible book surveys with topics in the TCRB cyclopedia. For example, as one reads the introduction to the Pentateuch and comes upon the sentence, “The Pentateuch delineates the mighty work of God,” he will find just opposite this line in the margin the reference, “Miracles of Moses and Aaron 2361.” He may then turn to number 2361 in the TCRB cyclopedia and read the outline summary about the miracles of Moses and Aaron, which is indexed to biblical references. This example is fairly typical. A student could conceivably spend many hours tracing out these numerous tangents from the line of thought in the Survey.
Another feature of the Survey is the potpourri of topics in the section entitled “Preliminary Matters” (198 pages). Included here is a variety of subjects, from the origin and growth of the Bible, which one might expect, to “Places of Religious Worship,” a less likely topic.
For the user of the TCRB who wants to use his cyclopedic “Bible Helps” as a sort of dictionary, this is the volume to have. However, I have some strong reservations about the ultimate value of such a study system. If one pursues the marginal topics seriously his efforts will be disjointed and haphazard, for the relevance of many of these references to the Survey itself is minimal. Furthermore, the wide range of material prevents the Survey from being thorough on any single subject. If one argues that a book such as this is not designed to be thorough but merely introductory, which is characteristic of many other equally good surveys, then why do we need it? The owner of the TCRB already has a pretty good survey right in his own study Bible.
Incredible Faith
One Woman Against the Reich, by Helmut W. Ziefle (Bethany House, 1982, 160 pp., $4.95), is reviewed by Marilyn Searle, a homemaker living in Wheaton, Illinois.
In war-torn Germany, the Holocaust demanded the world’s attention, while in its shadow were Christians who lived under a political system that not only opposed their beliefs but sought to destroy their families. Atheistic nazism’s Führer demanded total allegiance, and this, along with neighborhood ridicule, the threat of imprisonment, and enforced military service severely tested their faith. One Woman Against the Reich is a true, well-written story of how Maria Ziefle survived the dangers and horrors of the Nazi regime.
Maria and her husband George had built a closely knit family unit on a strong foundation of example and sound Bible teaching. Previously unknown fear broke into their home when son Kurt joined Hitler’s Youth Organization and denied the faith of his childhood. Even the joy brought by a new son, Helmut, was soon marred by the compulsory draft of their oldest son, Reinhold, into one of the army’s most dangerous units. The sudden disappearances of friends, their daughter Ruth’s close brush with death, and false accusations all intruded upon their lives. Life itself became more precious, and there entered a new awareness of how God can surround a situation to give his protection.
The war with its progressive intensity produced daily living that included racing for bomb shelters and searching for food as well as uncertainty and separation. The German resistance to the American invasion, and the retaliation of the suppressed Poles, produced fear, doubts, and struggles within Maria. But in every situation, she found the strength that is always available to God’s people as they trust him in even the most difficult of circumstances. Christians in America may never be faced with such trials. But in this book we find one example of a woman who faced pressure, persecution, and even death with a faith that bent but never broke.
Everyone A Minister
A Theology of Personal Ministry, by Lawrence O. Richards and Gib Martin (Zondervan, 1981, 332 pp., $12.95), is reviewed by Steven J. Cole, pastor, Cedarpines Park Community Church, Cedarpines Park, California.
Every minister should read this book.
If, you thought “clergyman” when you read the word “minister,” you especially need to read this book. You cannot read it with your mind in neutral. Larry Richards, the church renewal strategist, and Gib Martin, pastor of Seattle’s Trinity Church, team up to make you think. More important, they make you think biblically.
The first half of the book develops the theological foundation for personal ministry. They explode the unfortunate clergy-laity distinction. “Each of the people of God is called to ministry. No clergy-laity distinction exists in the mind of God” (p. 14). Chapter by chapter they develop the thesis that we are the people of God, a new covenant people, a kingdom people, a servant people, an empowered people, and a gifted people. As Richards wrote in his other recent book, A Theology of Church Leadership (coauthored with Clyde Hoeldtke), so here he and coauthor Martin find wanting much that passes for “leadership” in today’s church. In the Book of Acts, “leaders were not charged with ‘making decisions’ but with seeking the will of God by listening for the voice of the Spirit” (p. 97). Leaders are not to cram the people of God into preplanned programs, but rather are to “explore with them their own desires, abilities, and leadings, share needs that exist, and be open to what evolves” (p. 248).
The second half of the book deals with the practical implications of the fact that all of God’s people are called to ministry. If we want to build a ministering people, we must concern ourselves with seven areas: communicating vision, building close personal relationships, making disciples (and not simply church members), guiding people into becoming servants, equipping them for their ministries, extending the freedom for the people of God to respond to the voice of God, and understanding leadership. These subjects are dealt with in successive chapters.
I especially appreciated their insights on the distinctive tendency to “institutionalize” ministry rather than to see ministry as an extension of life in every interpersonal context. “What we need to do is help the laos of God recognize every interpersonal relationship as a setting for ministry, that they might freely share their giftedness and gifts with others” (p. 202).
Each chapter concludes with interesting case histories, discussion questions, thought provokers, and resources to enable readers to probe the practical ramifications.
We need to take the wraps off the spiritual gifts lining the pews of our churches. Yes, every minister—that is to say, every Christian—needs to read and interact with this book.
Keys To Study The Bible
Dynamic Personal Bible Study, by Cyril J. Barber (Loizeaux Brothers, 1981, 191 pp., $4.95pb), and Keys to Successful Bible Study, by John R. Martin (Herald Press, 1981, 180 pp., $5.95), are reviewed by Kenneth Gentry, Jr., pastor of Midway Presbyterian Church in America, Jonesboro, Tennessee.
The apostle Paul teaches that “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work” (NIV). But the apostle Peter and others warn that Scripture can be distorted to one’s own destruction. Thus the inherent high value of Scripture, coupled with the real danger of its distortion, should compel the Christian to approach Scripture in a reverent, sensible, and orderly manner. Consequently, there is a genuine need for books that instruct the Christian in proper interpretive methodology.
Cyril J. Barber (best known for his widely used reference work, The Minister’s Library) and John R. Martin (registrar and associate professor of church ministry at Eastern Mennonite Seminary) have produced two nontechnical, introductory volumes to meet this need—although, it must be admitted, there is no real dearth of material in this field.
Barber’s Dynamic Personal Bible Study seeks to explicate the principles of inductive Bible study while researching the life of Abraham. He is concerned that most such books develop hermeneutic practice by treating doctrinal rather than narrative portions of Scripture. The opening chapters summarize the four time-tested steps to Bible study: observation, interpretation, application, and correlation, Later chapters survey the special methods of doing historical, cultural, doctrinal, sociological, biographical, ethical, devotional, and topical studies. Each chapter ends with an “interaction” assignment. Four appendixes of sample study charts and a brief bibliography of essential books for the home library closes the volume.
Overall the book was somewhat disappointing. It tended to be stronger in presenting the conclusions of Barber’s own research on Abraham than in actually helping the student master interpretive technique for himself. However, the material on Abraham makes it useful beyond the realm of hermeneutics.
Martin’s Keys to Successful Bible Study proved not only superior to Barber’s book, but it may well deserve recognition in the upper ranks of introductory works on methodological Bible study. With great ease and clarity of style, the author leads the beginning student through the whole range of Bible study procedure while maintaining a high level of reader interest.
The book is divided into three major sections. Part I, on insights for Bible study, successfully whets the appetite for diligent Bible study. The chapters on the benefits of and clues to understanding Scripture were especially beneficial. Part II, on methods, not only leads the student by the hand through the principles of systematic study, but also stresses the importance and method of Bible reading, meditation, and memorization. Part III, on aids to Bible study, compiles helpful lists, chronologies, charts, Bible book summaries, and a survey of essential resource tools.
My only disappointment with Martin’s book was his assigning a thirteenth-century B.C. date to the Pentateuch. Of the two books, Martin’s seemed the more successful in fulfilling its purpose: to introduce the reader to a general understanding of the Bible and various methods of Bible study.
