The Sources Of Judaism
A Rabbinic Anthology, by C. G. Montefiore and H. Loewe (Schocken, 1974, 961 pp., $20, $7.50 pb), is reviewed by William Sanford LaSor, professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California.
The Old Testament closes prior to 400 B.C. The New Testament opens around the turn of the era. The literature of Judaism—the Talmud, comprising the Mishnah and the Gemara—came into existence in the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era. Both Christianity and Judaism claim the Old Testament, but what happened in the centuries following the close of the Old Testament that led to the development of Judaism? We, as Christians, know—or think we know—what happened that led to the development of Christianity. We sometimes forget that Christianity was at first considered to be a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14; 28:22), and although we confess that Jesus Christ was born a Jew according to the flesh (cf. Rom. 1:3), we usually make no effort to understand his Jewish background. We do little better when it comes to understanding the Apostle Paul.
A Rabbinic Anthology is a selection of passages from the Mishnaic and Talmudic literature arranged according to topic. The work was originally published just after Montefiore’s death in 1938 (Loewe died in 1940) and truly deserves to be reprinted in this clear and easy-to-read form. The editors were an unusual pair, for Montefiore says plainly, “I am a Liberal Jew,” whereas Loewe states, “I am an Orthodox Jew, but I am not a fundamentalist.” From time to time there is interaction between the two positions in their notes to the text, but always there is tremendous respect for the other and for his views. As a result we get to see something of the ways in which Jewish scholars of differing positions handle rabbinic material.
Montefiore, who was largely responsible for the selections included, drew almost exclusively upon Haggadic material. He describes this as “certainly not first class literature, though it contains many fine and notable things … without form or artistry … literature, not of a caste, but of a small set of professional people.” This is basically true, but there are passages that truly soar, and many passages are well known (even though we may be unaware that they are Talmudic in origin) because they have become part of our literary heritage. They have their distinctive form and artistry. As Christians we find numerous passages that sound strangely familiar, even though we cannot quite place them until we realize that the same thoughts, sometimes almost the same wording, can be found in the New Testament.
The Mishnah was codified by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi around A.D. 200—but this does not give us a true picture. The Mishnah consists of sayings of rabbis, beginning perhaps as early as 200 B.C. The well-known names of Simeon ben Shetach, Hillel, and Shammai belong to the pre-Tannaitic period (Hillel, who died A.D. 10, is often considered the last of this period). The early Tannaites (“teachers”) included Rabban Gamaliel I (Acts 5:34) and Johanan ben Zakkai, who founded the Academy at Jamnia. Loewe suggests that Naqdimon ben Gorion, one of the early Tannaites, may have been the Nicodemus of John 3:1–21; 7:50; 19:30. Later Tannaites included Rabbi Akiba (died A.D. 132) and Judah ha-Nasi. Following the Tannaites, the Amoraim (“speakers”) completed the Talmud, some in Palestine (c. A.D. 21–359) and some in Babylonia (c. A.D. 219–500). The selections in the Anthology are from rabbis who lived between 200 B.C. and A.D. 500, but mainly from those who lived A.D. 100–350.
The subjects are covered in thirty-one chapters, such as “The Nature and Character of God and His Relations with Man,” “The Law,” “Divine Mercy and Divine Judgment,” “On Prayer,” “The Family” (three chapters), “On Proselytes,” and “The Life to Come: Resurrection and Judgment.” Typical rabbinic exegesis of scriptural passages will possibly come as a shock to those who are not already familiar with it, and sometimes we may be tempted to ask, “How can they do that with the word of God?” But it is precisely because they believed it to be the word of God that they attempted to wring out every possible meaning—including some meanings that to modern scholars, Jewish or Christian, are impossible. Thus “ ‘belial’ means yokeless, i.e. beli, without, ’ol yoke,” and refers to a man who has “broken off heaven’s yoke”; actually it means “worthless, useless.” Or again, “ ‘Esau took Mahalath (i.e. forgiveness), the daughter of Ishmael, to wife.’ But her original name was Bashemath [daughter of shame]; the new name shows that Esau was forgiven all his iniquities.”
The sharpness of the rabbinic mind is often apparent. “R. Eliezer said: ‘Repent one day before you die.’ His disciples said, ‘Who knows when he will die?’ ‘All the more, then, let him repent to-day, for peradventure he will die tomorrow. The result will be that all his life will be spent in repentance.”
Christians have often completely misunderstood the Jewish attitude toward the Law. Many passages will show that the Jew is depending not on works but on the grace of God. “All need grace, for even Abraham, for whose sake grace came plenteously into the world, himself needed grace.” Yet, even as among Christians, there is a frequent reference to good works and to the stored-up merit of the righteous (see pp. 218–32). As Montefiore pointed out, the rabbis were not systematic theologians or philosophers.
It would also be of value to study the rabbinic teachings on the Holy Spirit, who (despite the editor’s warning of a “weakening thereby of the doctrine of the Unity”) is often distinct from God: “Then God said to the Holy Spirit.…” Likewise we should study passages on the Life to Come, where the “days of the Messiah” are to be distinguished from “the world to come.” Christian chiliasm (or historical pre-millennialism) is in agreement with the rabbinic teachings on this point, for the “days of the Messiah” (= the Millennium in chiliasm) precede the general resurrection and the last judgment, and following these events is the “world to come.” But again, as in Christian doctrine, there is considerable confusion about the details. In Chapter XXXI, where these selections are presented, there are a number of passages dealing with the suffering Messiah. But Judaism never developed a doctrine of the suffering Son-of-David Messiah, and the careful reader will note that the suffering Messiah is “Ephraim the Messiah of my righteousness” (p. 584 and again on p. 585). Ephraim was the son of Joseph, and the Messiah ben Joseph is developed as a person entirely distinct from the Messiah ben David, as careful study of this passage will show.
To make the work of the greatest possible usefulness, there are a number of useful excursuses and lists. Each selection is numbered (in square brackets, e.g. [904]), and the source (if known) is identified; in any event, the location of the passage in the Talmud is given following the passage. Lists of the rabbis in the Pre-Tannaitic, Tannaitic, and Amoraic periods, with an indication of their “generation” or approximate date, plus references to the quotations that are credited to them are most useful. A glossary of terms such as Baraita, Ger, Midrash, and Mishnah helps one not familiar with such expressions. But best of all is the general index, where we find not only an exhaustive index by subjects but even the key words of a quotation (e.g., “Call no man righteous,” “Do not stand when others sit”) can be located. There are also indexes to the biblical passages, to Greek and Latin passages, and to the rabbinic passages.
All in all, this is a most valuable work and deserves to be used by those who want to know more about either the Jewish background of the New Testament or the rabbinic background of modern Judaism. In some ways the most useful parts are the comments in which the editors explain rabbinic sayings that would otherwise be meaningless to those of us who do not have a rich and knowledgeable background in Talmudic studies.
China Watching
Wansui: Insights on China Today, by Robert Larson (Word, 150 pp., $4.95), is reviewed by Margaret Van Buren, librarian, Azusa Pacific College, Azusa, California.
Robert Larson’s latest book gives us a sensitive look at the character of the Chinese as revealed throughout their history. He shows how ignorance of their history and culture twice caused Christian missionaries to fail to penetrate permanently through the wall.
Can Christian missions succeed in China? Yes, Larson says—“if we incorporate them into Chinese ways of ‘the center of the world.’ ” In clear, enjoyable prose he delineates the best way to meet and influence the Chinese. He illustrates this with an analysis of Mao and his tactics, showing why he succeeded and how he will fail.
Larson speaks the Chinese language fluently and has read many of their sacred and popular classics. After years of participating in as well as watching their culture, he now is able to think as a Chinese.
Thirteen hundred years of Chinese culture are dealt with in these 150 pages. This heavy load is lightened with humor and twists of phrase, and the book makes enjoyable reading. By the end, most readers will feel that they like and have begun to understand the Chinese people.
An Elder Statesman’S Challenge
Rethinking Our Priorities: The Church, Its Pastor and People, by J. Sidlow Baxter (Zondervan, 1974, 255 pp., $6.95), is reviewed by Stephen E. Smallman, pastor, McLean Reformed Presbyterian Church, McLean, Virginia.
J. Sidlow Baxter, much-loved English Bible teacher and conference speaker, here challenges evangelical ministers in America to rethink their priorities. The author assumes the stance of an elder statesman by virtue of his age (now in his sixties), and experience (twenty-five years as pastor to Baptist congregations in Britain, followed by sixteen years of itinerant ministry and writing, mostly in America). From this vantage point he sees several distressing signs in contemporary evangelicalism and responds by setting forth for the first time in print seventeen addresses grouped in three divisions: Our Bible, Pentecost, and Public Worship.
The first part, “Our Bible,” challenges evangelicals who may be tempted to adopt a weak view of inspiration. For Baxter, adherance to an inerrant, infallible Bible is the “life and death issue for Reformation Christianity.” The six chapters devoted to this topic are of uneven quality and tend to be redundant. If they can be accepted as general exhortations to continued faithfulness to this basic Protestant doctrine, then they have merit. But Baxter seems to think he presents an unanswerable apologetic for biblical inspiration. “To the open-minded the evidence is clear, valid, full.” This is typical of many expressions of confidence that a willingness to master and set forth “the arguments for its divine origin” based on “the well-tested laws of logic” will stem the tide of unbelief in Protestant circles. Contemporary apologists such as Francis Schaeffer, however, would probably respond that such appeals to reason have contributed to the impotence of evangelicals in resisting unbelief. In my opinion, Baxter is at his best when he moves from appeals to reason and evidence to the authority of Jesus Christ (“The King’s Seal”) as the basis for believing in an authoritative Bible.
The second part, “Pentecost,” is a series of talks given to Southern Baptist ministers several years ago. Each one is an exhortation to make the Holy Spirit a vital part of one’s ministry in the local church, the pulpit, personal witnessing, and inner spiritual development. The author is obviously unenthusiastic about the contemporary charismatic movement with its emphasis on “speaking in tongues or some other such abnormality” but at the same time has no problem endorsing the older Keswick-style “post-conversion crisis or special experience such as Finney and Moody and Torrey had.” The major emphasis of the section is not a polemic against charismatics but a positive exhortation for men in the ministry to live in the power of the Holy Spirit.
One suspects that a desire for a platform to say the things he does in the third section, “Public Worship,” was the real reason why Baxter wrote this book. In the introduction to the section, he dismisses British evangelicals, who do not need what he is about to say, and then scolds Americans for their abominable patterns of public worship. “All our criticisms,” he assures his American friends, “spring from a fountain of sincere concern for the preservation and true advancement of the evangelical cause in this beloved land of the Stars and Stripes.”
The most glaring weakness the author has found in his years of ministry to Americans is lack of reverence. “The average church service among the evangelical churches over here is ragged and undignified,” and as a result “they are failing to draw and hold the better class of people socially and intellectually.” Baxter then comments on dress, the behavior of children, electric organs (“How often we wished those instruments had never been invented!”), use of special music, quality of hymns and hymn singing, as well as music generally (with extended comments on “pop” music in churches), anemic Sunday-evening services (including the use of a song leader—an “obnoxious feature”), and a series of “newfangled perils.” American fundamentalists and evangelicals to whom he is appealing (not all are affected, fortunately) would do well to listen carefully to this British pastor. One certainly hopes he will be heeded by those who will not trust the validity of similar criticisms from American churchmen. But even here, Baxter leaves something to be desired. As valid as the criticisms are, the alternatives are not always adequate. There is a feeling that we are being called back to “the good old days” of British evangelicalism rather than to a well thought out biblical philosophy of worship adaptable to contemporary needs.
J. Sidlow Baxter is a true man of God and deserves a hearing, but he is most effective when he stops worrying about analyzing contemporary needs and gets back to preaching the Word (the subject of his final chapter).
BRIEFLY NOTED
Marriage and the Family, by Douglas Jones (Carey Publications, 55 pp., $2 pb), Growing a Life Together, by Fred Wood (Broadman, 126 pp., n.p.), The Christian Home, by Ralph Heynen (Baker, 79 pp., $1.25 pb), God Has a Better Idea: The Home, by Roy Roberts (BMH Books, 144 pp., $2.75 pb), Love: Familystyle, by Clarence Kerr (Good News, 79 pp., $1.25 pb), The Living Marriage, by H. Norman Wright (Revell, 128 pp., $5.95), To Adam With Love, by Douglas Roberts (Revell, 124 pp., $1.50 pb), The Family and the Corporation Man, by Don Osgood (Harper & Row, 148 pp., $6.95), and Marriage: Agony and Ecstasy, by Helen Brenneman (Herald Press, 84 pp., $1.50 pb). After you digest this collection of brief books by evangelicals, yours should be a shining example of a Christian home! Jones offers a basic introduction to courtship and marriage. Wood carries this further in a more detailed account, but it is still like a premarital counseling session. Heynen, R. Roberts, and Kerr each define God’s plan for the home; they differ only on the points they emphasize. Heynen is designed for use in discussion groups; R. Roberts focuses on roles and responsibilities; Kerr stresses love responses to situations. Wright has gathered verses from the Living Bible on family relations and on communication in general and grouped them under a dozen topics such as listening and forgiveness. Be sure also to read them in their biblical context. D. Roberts presents a biblical pattern for the husband-wife relationship in a very down-to-earth, readable form. Osgood traces his struggle to balance a successful career with a happy family. He provides examples of applications and lets the reader formulate the principles. For those who need but feel they cannot afford a marriage counselor, Brenneman summarizes the approach she learned from one.
The Church in Today’s Catacombs, edited by Sergiu Grossu (Arlington, 224 pp., $8.95). Here is an excellent account of what is happening in the “Church of Silence” behind the Iron and Bamboo Curtains as taken from writers as diverse as Solzhenitsyn and Lenin. Translated from French into English by a former CHRISTIANITY TODAY employee.
Hell and the Victorians, by Geoffrey Rowell (Oxford, 242 pp., $15.75). A study of the gradual change in nineteenth-century theological thinking about hell, eternal life, and eschatology. While not a totally balanced view of all the thinking of the period, it does provide a look at the certain outstanding figures such as Newman, Coleridge, and Farrar.
Kept by the Power of God, by I. Howard Marshall (Bethany, 281 pp., $4.95 pb). A masterly study of what the Bible has to say about perseverance and falling away by a leading British evangelical scholar. The author is neither a doctrinaire Calvinist nor a thoroughgoing Arminian. He commends each view for emphasizing elements of biblical truth but also finds inadequacies in both. A book for all serious Christians to ponder.
On Behalf of Children, by Linda Isham (Judson, 48 pp., $1.50 pb), Between Christian Parent and Child, by Kenneth and Elizabeth Gangel (Baker, 89 pp., $1.45 pb), What They Did Right, edited by Virginia Hearn (Tyndale, 294 pp., $3.95 pb), and Smart Dads I Know, by Charlie Shedd (Sheed and Ward, 125 pp., $4.95). Parent-child relations from all perspectives. Isham traces child development, especially spiritual, in a rather inductive fashion, asking the reader to recall childhood responses to situations and drawing principles from them. The Gangels offer a Christian response to books like Ginnott’s Between Parent and Child. Some very sound reasoning. To switch the focus from the child to the parent: What They Did Right should be an encouragement to Christian parents struggling to raise their families. Thirty-eight church leaders from across the country share the positive influence their parents have had on them. Charlie Shedd, the popular advice-giver, has some for fathers, supported in each instance with success stories he’s encountered. Some valid points that may apply to moms also.
Judaism and Hellenism, by Martin Hengel (Fortress, two volumes, 313 and 335 pp., $34 the set). A definitive study of the encounter of Jewish and Greek culture in Palestine from the time of Alexander the Great until the middle of the second century B.C. This is an indispensable work for serious students to consult because it corrects some of the basic assumptions of many New Testament scholars concerning the nature of Palestinian Judaism in the time of Jesus and the early Church.
Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation, edited by Gerald Hawthorne (Eerdmans, 377 pp., $9.95). A valuable collection of essays by twenty-eight former students of Merrill C. Tenney of Wheaton College, written to honor him. Among the contributions are Carl Edwin Armerding on David’s sons, E. Earle Ellis on Luke 9, Eldon Jay Epp on the purpose of John, George Eldon Ladd on the Spirit in Galatians, and Richard Longenecker on life-of-Jesus research. Should be in every seminary or Bible-college library.
The Book of Revelation, by G. R. Beasley-Murray (Attic, 352 pp., $12.95). A thoroughly scholarly and sane commentary on a very difficult portion of the New Testament. The author, a highly respected British evangelical who now teaches at Southern Baptist Seminary in Louisville, has made eschatology the focal point of his research for many years and now offers the serious Bible student the fruit of his labors in this addition to the New Century Bible series.
Black Belief, by Henry Mitchell (Harper & Row, 171 pp., $7.95), A History of Black Religion in Northern Areas and A History of Black Religion in Southern Areas, both by Lenwood Davis (Council of Planning Librarians [P.O. Box 229, Monticello, Illinois 61856], 13 pp. each, $1.50 each), White Questions to a Black Christian, by Howard Jones (Zondervan, 215 pp., $1.75 pb), Free, White, and Christian, by Donald Shockley (Abingdon, 142 pp., $3.50 pb), and Everybody’s Afraid in the Ghetto, by Keith Phillips (Regal, 182 pp., $1.45 pb). Black awareness, by blacks and whites. The most thorough and searching of the offerings is by Mitchell. A preacher and seminary professor, he projects the thesis that the African influence as well as black folklore interacted with white religion to form the black religious experience. His “folklore” is merely another explanation of grace, mercy, and hell. Davis provides excellent bibliographies. Jones, a black evangelist on the Billy Graham team, shares his views on some of the most frequently asked questions on black-white relations. Shockley stresses the ethnic understanding each person brings to his religion and personal dealings, especially as they relate to black-white differences. More of a cursory sociological study than anything else. Phillips recounts his experiences in the ghetto in establishing a discipleship program. A quiet statement of the need for evangelism in the context of meeting people’s needs.
Diary of Daily Prayer, by J. Barrie Shepherd (Augsburg, 127 pp., $2.95 pb). Sixty thoughtful, well-expressed morning and evening prayers with blank pages interspersed for the user’s own additions. Free of the self-conscious cleverness present in some other modem-language prayers.
In Praise of Leisure, by Harold Lehman (Herald, 199 pp., $5.95, $2.95 pb). Thorough but leisurely reading that investigates the correlation between work attitudes and leisure activities. Provides a biblical examination of the use of time that should challenge any Christian.
A Bag Without Holes, by Fred Eggerichs (Bethany Fellowship, 95 pp., $2.95 pb). We are continually urged to support various ministries through annuities, revocable gifts, life income agreements, and other confusing means. This clearly written book will help you sort out the pros and cons, without promoting any particular organization as the beneficiary. A welcome aid to Christian stewardship.
The Joy of Housekeeping, by Ella May Miller (Revell, 162 pp., $4.95), The Happy Housewife, by Elizabeth Baker (Victor, 144 pp., $1.75), and Talk to Me, by Charlie Shedd (Doubleday, 105 pp., $3.95). So this is what every wife and mother should know? Miller and Baker, both happy homemakers, offer guides to enable every woman to be as they are. Miller is extremely practical, explaining how to organize and cope with everything from accepting one’s role to cleaning rooms. Baker offers more of a biblical answer to wrong attitudes and frustrations. Both only scratch the surface. In the format used for his popular Letters to Karen, Shedd offers thirty-five letters that propose the best ways for a wife to reclaim all levels of meaningful communications (and establish some that never existed) with her husband. Most are the simple things that are forgotten in the midst of a tense situation.
Choral Speaking and the Verse Choir, by E. Kingsley Povenmire (A. S. Barnes, 395 pp., $9.95). The history as well as practicality of implementing this dramatic form are carefully explained, and forty-seven poems are marked for expression and graded for use at various age levels. A good text in an area that is seldom explored.
Travels in the World of the Old Testament, edited by M. S. H. G. Heerma van Voss and others (Van Gorcum publishers [Assen, Netherlands], 287 pp., about $34). Twenty-nine articles on the Old Testament and related subjects, in French, German, English, and Dutch and presented to Professor M. A. Beek of Amsterdam on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday. Widely diverse and erudite, these contributions will be of interest mainly to biblical scholars.
Can Ethics Be Christian?, by James Gustafson (University of Chicago, 191 pp., $8.95). Philosophical approach to the question of morality in society. The definition of “Christian” here more closely approaches “religious,” but the theological implications remain the same. Scholarly, readable analysis.
Moltmann: Radical Reinterpretations
The Crucified God, by Jürgen Moltmann (Harper & Row, 1974, 346 pp., $10), is reviewed by Donald G. Bloesch, professor of theology, Dubuque Theological Seminary, Dubuque, Iowa.
In this work Moltmann reinterprets the cross of Christ in such a way as to make it an event within the life of God. He also tries to recover the political significance of the cross. The cross summons us not to fix our gaze on a heaven beyond this world but to follow Christ in identification with the oppressed. Our primary concern as Christians should be not with true belief or pure doctrine or correct morality but with creative love to the politically and economically deprived according to this prominent theologian.
Moltmann sees the cross not as a “divine-human event” but as a “trinitarian event between the Son and the Father.” The cross “reveals a change in God”; it connotes an experience of death in the heart of God. The meaning of the cross is that God in his innermost being has radically penetrated the world of sin and tribulation and identified himself with the poor and rejected. The transcendence of the crucified Christ is not metaphysical but the “transcendence of concrete rejection.”
Moltmann seeks to move beyond the older Protestant conception of the cross as a substitutionary expiation that satisfied the demands of God’s law. Instead the cross is a revelation of God’s boundless love and a sign of His solidarity with the despised and forsaken. Through the cross man makes contact with liberating love, which enables him to enter creatively into the sufferings of others. What happens in the cross is that “the life-giving spirit of love emerges from the death of the Son and the grief of the Father.” Man is saved by being taken up into the event of creative love and thereby experiencing its liberating power. Jesus is not a substitutionary victim but the revealer and exemplar of divine compassion. He was raised not into a heaven beyond this world but into God’s future and was seen and believed as the present representative of this future.
Even more drastic is Moltmann’s reinterpretation of God. Seeking to move beyond both theism and atheism he posits a God who is the living force and dynamic ground of history. Like Hegel he speaks not so much of God intervening in history but of “history in God.” Indeed, he says, all human history is taken up into the “history of God.” He denies a “personal God” in heaven to whom we can pray. We do not pray to God but in God, in the event of creative love. God is not a sovereign being transcendent over history but the power of liberating love which now encompasses and will eventually transform the whole of creation. Again in terms reminiscent of Hegel he says that God is “transcendent as Father, immanent as Son and opens up the future of history as … Spirit.”
Moltmann rejects what he terms “radical monotheism” in favor of a process panentheism in which the travail of the world is necessarily included in God himself. One can sympathize with his criticisms of some traditional views that deny the very possibility of God’s being affected by the suffering on the cross, but he seems to make suffering or pain endemic to the being of God, as can be seen in his criticism of Barth’s retention of the notion of impassibility.
Moltmann says the time has come for differentiating the Father of Jesus Christ from the God of the philosophers. Yet it is fair to ask whether he in fact substitutes a modern philosophy for classical philosophy. While highly critical of Plato and Aristotle he appears singularly open to Hegel and Whitehead. Indeed, it seems that he has given us a theological version of the historical monism that is found in Hegel. He contends that all of reality is a sacrament of God, a bearer of God’s presence. The cross is a prolepsis of the transformation of the cosmos into the spirit of love. All world history is a history of the “transformations of God.”
Finally, I have definite reservations about Moltmann’s doctrine of salvation. The liberation that Christ brings is defined in terms of “democratic human rights,” “identity in recognition,” “peace with nature,” and “the courage to be.” It is doubtful whether any of these can be successfully correlated with reconciliation and redemption, as these terms have been understood in Reformational theology. He continues to speak of the justification of the godless, but his emphasis is on the love that proceeds from the cross in the heart of God to the godforsaken, not the vindication of God’s righteousness through a propitiatory sacrifice in history. I can assent to his view that repressions and enmities are conquered only through sympathy and love, but is this the primary meaning of the cross and of Christian salvation? The pathos of God figures much more prominently in his theology than the inviolable holiness of God and the wrath of God against sin. The conflict of Christ with the demonic powers of darkness is almost totally ignored. Moltmann refers frequently to Luther and Barth to substantiate his position, but the philosophy that he propounds would be repudiated by both those theologians.
